Aiming at the Future
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Contemplating the relationship between Science Fiction (SF) and guns is contemplating the future. As a genre SF speculates on the future, imagining the technology that will be created and how that technology will impact human civilization. Author David N. Samuelson describes the relationship between the scientific and the fictional in SF literature stating, “in the context of fantasy, I suggest the importance of building bridges to relevance, one of which is extending the known. In the context of science, I posit the importance of empiricism, determinism, and relativism. Conditioned by these constraints, extensions in SF subdivide into extrapolation, speculation, and transformation.” [1] SF stories that contemplate the future do not merely imagine the future advances that technology will take but extrapolate, speculate, and transform them. In envisioning the technology of the future, SF shapes our expectations of what the future will look like and the technology we create in the present.
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Fig 1. THE JETSONS and all related characters and elements are trademarks of and © Hanna-Barbera.
Science Fiction cartoon The Jetsons shaped our imagining of the future to include flying cars and robot maids. While we still don't have flying cars [2], we do have Roomba's which can be programmed to clean floors.
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Fig 2. Luke Skywalker and Darth Vader's lightsaber duel in Star Wars Episode IV: The Empire Strikes back. Image © Lucasfilm
The iconic lightsaber weapon of the Star Wars universe takes the classic sword and imagines a blade made not of steel but controlled energy. While the film never relates the weapon to laser technology, viewers nonetheless came "to associate the light saber of Star Wars (1977) with a 'laser sword'" [3] making the lightsaber the poster weapon for lasers for years to come.
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Historically, there has been a link between weapons development and the SF genre, whereby SF plays a role in bringing technological possibilities into actuality. Still, the connection between SF and weapons technology is more complicated than life reflecting art, or even art reflecting life. Instead SF is a prism through which technology is refracted, bent into new directions and dispersed into the multitude of possibilities and routes that weapons technology (or any tech) can take.
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The Evolving Gun |
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Fig 3.
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Just as human beings have evolved and progressed over time, so to have the tools that we use. Weapons technology, particularly firearms, have evolved dramatically. In fact, the evolution and development of gun technology ties into the development of human civilization. Tim Blackmore writes about the relationship between human development and guns and notes that, ‘’human and gun evolution seem to be intimately, at times inextricably, connected. We won’t stop making guns, won’t stop using them, won’t stop investing in them, improving them, making them more lethal, more expensive, and easier to use.” [4]
American Rifleman featured the Bushmaster Advanced Combat Rifle (ACR) for their May 2010 issue. They describe the weapon as one that "stands poised to reshape the landscape of rifle design." [5] An ad from Bushmaster also appears in the issue portraying the ACR as a product of evolution and adaptation.
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Due to this intertwining of human destiny and gun development, any speculation on the future must then also speculate on the weapons we will develop and use in future wars. While not all SF considers the future, there is an entire wing of SF literature, films, and television shows that focus on the future of war. Future War SF imagines what conflicts humanity will face in the years to come and consequentially must also imagine what weapons will be developed to meet the circumstances of a future war.
Future Wars
There are thousands of examples of Future War SF stories, but some stand out as clear examples of the genre. The War of The Worlds, and Starship Troopers, are two well-known and influential works of SF that depict future wars. These novels have influenced other works of SF, the ways we think about the future, and the technology that we use.
The War of the Worlds
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Classic examples of future war SF include H.G. Wells' 1898 novel The War of the Worlds which describes the invasion of Earth by mechanically advanced Martians. The novel depicts a technological massacre where towering robotic tripods wipe out villages across the English countryside. The War of the Worlds has endured becoming one of the most well-known works of SF ever written. It has been adapted into several films and even incited a public panic in 1938 after Orson Welles led a performance of an adaptation of the novel over the radio. The radio adaptation moved the setting of the events to New Jersey and listeners believed the descriptions to be genuine news accounts of a Martian invasion. [6] |
Fig 4. Alien tripod illustration by Alvim Corréa, from the 1906 French edition of H.G. Wells' "War of the Worlds".
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Starship Troopers
Fig 5. Starship Troopers
1997 © TriStar Pictures
The 1997 film Starship Troopers is a very loose adaptation of the original and satirizes the fascist undertones of the novel.
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Robert Heinlein’s 1959 novel Starship Troopers also imagines a future war where humanity fights against extra-terrestrial beings but moves the location of the battle from Earth to the far reaches of space. Set 700 years into the future, the novel depicts a technologically advanced human society, with faster than light space travel capabilities, and advanced weaponry all of which is used to fight a race of alien Arachnids. The novel follows the career of a young soldier and describes the technology that allows him to engage in battle with swarms of intelligent but monstrous "Bugs."
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In SF the future is open to interpretation and limitless possibilities. The circumstances of future wars vary from story to story with some set hundreds, thousands, or even millions of years into the future. The combatants of future wars can be anything from human beings fighting each other in national conflicts (World War 3 is an often-imagined future war) to battles with alien races throughout the galaxy. The Terminator and Matrix film franchises contemplate the idea of humanity at war with our own creations, depicting future wars with Artificial Intelligences (AI) and robotic armies. Anything goes in future war SF. David N. Samuelson describes the wide ranging variety of future war circumstances and settings as being typical to the SF genre stating that, “its formulas are multiple and various, ranging from myth to mathematics… few readers would limit SF to any particular time, place, or type of action.”[1] This wide ranging net of possibilities in setting and situation makes it possible for SF authors to imagine the wide ranging potential of technology, and to stretch that potential into new forms of transportation, communication, and weaponry
Future Weapons
Fig 8. Captain James T. Kirk (William Shatner) aims a Phaser Rifle in Star Trek: The Original Series © CBS Studios
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Fig. 9 Phaser Rifle being fired in Star Trek: The Original Series episode "Where No Man Has Gone Before" © CBS Studios
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Future war SF in particular expands the feedback loop of inventions created to meet contemporary needs, by forcing authors (and readers) to consider inventions that may not be technologically possible now but could be developed as humanity progresses. SF author Kim Stanley Robinson has described the SF genre as "the realism of our time. It describes the present in the way a skeet shooter targets a clay pigeon, aiming a bit ahead of the moment to reveal what is not yet present but is already having an impact."[7] Robinson's metaphor can be applied to the effect that SF has on the technological imagination. SF future technology effects the present by aiming at (and imagining) the weapons technology just ahead of the guns we have today
What then are the weapons imagined in Future War SF?
From the Heat-Ray to the Death Star: The Evolution of the Death Ray
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Fig 10.
First attack of the Martian tripod and Heat-Ray in the 2005 film War of the Worlds starring Tom Cruise. © Paramount Pictures |
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Description of the Martian Heat-Ray ― From The War of the Worlds (1898):
It is still a matter of wonder how the Martians are able to slay men so swiftly and so silently. Many think that in some way they are able to generate an intense heat in a chamber of practically absolute non-conductivity. This intense heat they project in a parallel beam against any object they choose, by means of a polished parabolic mirror of unknown composition, much as the parabolic mirror of a lighthouse projects a beam of light. But no one has absolutely proved these details. However it is done, it is certain that a beam of heat is the essence of the matter. Heat, and invisible, instead of visible, light. Whatever is combustible flashes into flame at its touch, lead runs like water, it softens iron, cracks and melts glass. [8]
It is still a matter of wonder how the Martians are able to slay men so swiftly and so silently. Many think that in some way they are able to generate an intense heat in a chamber of practically absolute non-conductivity. This intense heat they project in a parallel beam against any object they choose, by means of a polished parabolic mirror of unknown composition, much as the parabolic mirror of a lighthouse projects a beam of light. But no one has absolutely proved these details. However it is done, it is certain that a beam of heat is the essence of the matter. Heat, and invisible, instead of visible, light. Whatever is combustible flashes into flame at its touch, lead runs like water, it softens iron, cracks and melts glass. [8]
World War 1 saw an uptick in worry over future wars, as humanity began to realize the increasing scale of devastation caused by weapons of war due to technological developments. The aftermath of World War 1 and the onset of World War 2 saw the beginning of the search for "death ray", a weapon of mass destruction unlike any the world had seen before. Historian William J. Fanning notes how during this period "articles in newspapers, magazines, professional journals, and books began to appear that warned of a new conflict in which airpower, poison gas, disease germs, and exotic weapons such as death rays would result in the destruction, or near destruction, of civilization." [9]
The earliest fictional example of a death ray came from H.G. Wells' War of the Worlds. In the novel Wells describes the Martian "Heat-Ray" a weapon of power that can burn through and destroy anything put before it. The Martian weapon is impervious to human guns, cannons, and bombs, and with it the Martian force is able to quickly subdue human resistance.
The earliest fictional example of a death ray came from H.G. Wells' War of the Worlds. In the novel Wells describes the Martian "Heat-Ray" a weapon of power that can burn through and destroy anything put before it. The Martian weapon is impervious to human guns, cannons, and bombs, and with it the Martian force is able to quickly subdue human resistance.
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Wells' Heat-Ray was the first of many death rays imagined in SF. However, the search for the death ray did not remain in the realms of the fictional world. From World War 1 on, scientists and military personnel across the globe were reported to be working on death ray type weapons. These experiments were the result of a shift in scientific innovations and the, "development of three important sources of energy… electricity, X-rays, and radium." [9] Scientists explored the application of these new energy sources for many fields, including weapons development
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Fig 11. Movie poster for "The Destroying Ray" a Flash Gordon serial. (c) Universal Pictures
After World War 1 the Death Ray became a trope of popular SF serials such as Flash Gordon and Buck Rogers.
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Newspaper reports from this period describe the variety of the weapons being experimented with. There was no standard definition of what exactly a death ray was, the term used instead as a catchall for non-conventional weapons being developed. None of these experiments led to concrete weapons at the time, and the line between actual events, melodramatic news reporting, and pulp SF stories often becomes blurred. However, for all the murkiness and failed experiments the death ray was "more than a passing fancy of sensationalist journalism, the death ray attracted the careful scrutiny of governments and military agencies before ultimately being rejected as beyond the limits of existing technology." [9]
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Despite all of the failed experiments and hoaxes, research and development with Death Ray technology continued throughout both World Wars and beyond. SF has certainly worked to keep the Death Ray in the popular imagination by continuing to produce fictional weapons of mass destruction. The emergence of laser technology in the 1960’s quickly drew the attention of weapons engineers in the military and the imaginations of authors in SF alike. Soon after, laser-like weapons emerged as the phaser guns of Star Trek to the Death Star of Star Wars. While most of the practical applications of laser technology is innocuous (lasers are a silent part of everyday life, from store scanners to medical equipment) they are nonetheless still associated with weapons, mostly because of their use in SF.
David Seidel describes the trajectory of laser experimentation noting that, “the military research and development programs built upon the laser sought to exploit the coherence and directionality of laser beams, as well as their intensity, for detection, ranging, guidance weaponry. Some applications, like optical radar, were obvious. Others, like laser sidearms, owed more to science fiction than to science” [10]. To this day lasers still straddle the line between SF weapon and real-world technology.
David Seidel describes the trajectory of laser experimentation noting that, “the military research and development programs built upon the laser sought to exploit the coherence and directionality of laser beams, as well as their intensity, for detection, ranging, guidance weaponry. Some applications, like optical radar, were obvious. Others, like laser sidearms, owed more to science fiction than to science” [10]. To this day lasers still straddle the line between SF weapon and real-world technology.
That's not a moon, its a Death Ray! The Death Star weapon of the Star Wars universe is a death ray with the ability to destroy a whole planet remotely from space. Star Wars became emblematic of Ronald Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative which proposed "a network of orbiting lasers able to intercept enemy missiles." [11] The project became known as "Star Wars." Reagan had a unique relationship with SF weaponry, having himself starred in Murder in the Air (1940) a movie about a death ray like weapon.
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The Heat-Ray however, has started to make the leap from SF imagination to real life weapons tech. In 2008 the US Military unveiled the Active Denial System (ADS). The ADS is a Direct Energy Weapon (DEW) meant to be used for crowd control and as a "non-lethal" weapon. The ADS has become known as the Heat-Ray because of its capability to "project an invisible high energy beam that produces a sudden burning feeling...It can penetrate clothes, suddenly heating up the skin of anyone in its path to 50C." [12]
FIg 20. The ADS "Heat Ray" is being proposed as a non-lethal weapon for use in urban warfare situations to limit collateral damage.
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Fig 19. Active Denial System is mounted onto military vehicles for mobility. Photo from AP.
This technology is still under development and has yet to be used in the battlefield. Still, Stephen D. Davis argues that the heat ray (and similar weapons) will inevitably come into service as "the cost and mobility deficiencies of DEWs could decrease with further technological advancements and as these weapons are mass-produced." [13]
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SF plays a role in bringing technology such as the Heat-Ray into reality. David Kirby theorizes that SF film and television in particular are central to making an impossible technology seem plausible. He writes, "Speculative scenarios represent highly implausible and impractical situations and technologies... so that they look possible within a film's narrative. They make these technologies look plausible... conveying to audiences that these fictional technologies can and should exist in the real world." [14] We can imagine a ray-gun because we have seen them being used. Furthermore, we can imagine a ray-gun as a real weapon that is scientifically inevitable because they are part of the landscape of our collective image of the future, thanks to SF. Weapons technology such as the death rays and laser guns depend on works of SF authors (like H.G. Wells) to make a theoretical technology seem realistic and worthy of scientific research and development.
From Powered Armor to Iron Man: The Evolution of Military Exoskeletons
Long after the death of H.G. Wells in 1946, SF authors such as Robert Heinlein kept weapons that were previously dismissed as being beyond the realms of human capability alive in both the fictional world and in the realm of scientific research and development. Written over half a century after the War of the Worlds, Robert Heinlein's Starship Troopers has been just as impactful in the world of military technology and even in the minds of military personnel. SF author Charles Gannon describes the novel's importance and influence stating, "arguably, in terms of pertinent narrative content, publication history, and plentiful technologically significant 'prognostications’ no future war text can rival Robert A. Heinlein’s 1959 novel Starship Troopers. With considerable accuracy, Starship Troopers graphically and specifically anticipated personal military equipment and weapons that are the equivalent of (or still well beyond) today’s most advanced systems." [15] The influence of Starship Troopers is still being seen in the world of SF and in the development of military technology.
Fig. 21 The cover art for the 1997 edition of Starship Troopers displays the powered armor and firearms used in the novel.
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If death rays and lasers are the technological legacy of War of the Worlds, then Powered Armor Suits are the legacy of Starship Troopers. The Powered Armor Suit is one of the technologies built into the fabric of Heinlein's narrative as tool used by the military ground troops during the war with the Arachnids. Although it is labeled as "armor" the powered suits are a multifaceted technology. Heinlein's armor is a spacesuit, a computer, a GPS system, a telephone, a shield, and a weapon. The powered armor proposed by Heinlein is both fantastic and evocative as it takes the average soldier and technologically enhances him to the point where one soldier in a suit can do the work of 100 unarmored troops.
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Description of Powered Armor― from Starship Troopers (1959) :
Powered armor is one-half the reason we call ourselves 'mobile infantry' instead of just 'infantry'... Our suits give us better eyes, better ears, stronger backs (to carry heavier weapons and more ammo), better legs, more intelligence ('intelligence' in the military meaning; a man in a suit can be just as stupid as anybody else—only he had better not be), more firepower, greater endurance, less vulnerability. A suit isn’t a space suit—although it can serve as one. It is not primarily armor—although the Knights of the Round Table were not armored as well as we are. It isn’t a tank—but a single M.I. private could take on a squadron of those things and knock them off unassisted if anybody was silly enough to put tanks against M.I. A suit is not a ship but it can fly, a little—on the other hand neither spaceships nor atmosphere craft can fight against a man in a suit except by saturation bombing of the area he is in (like burning down a house to get one flea!). Contrariwise we can do many things that no ship—air, submersible, or space—can do. [16] |
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The powered armor being described may seem familiar to modern readers. This is no coincidence. Heinlein's powered armor suits have gone on to influence SF literature, films, comics, and games since its introduction. The idea of wearable technology, particularly technologically enhanced battle wear is a staple of SF [17] Powered armor suits are an iconic element in the imagining of future soldiers and advanced combat gear. The Iron Man suit is perhaps the most well known adaptation of Heinlein's original power armor, but the armor portrayed in games such as Halo and television shows like The Expanse have stayed closer to Heinlein's original vision.
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Variations and adaptations of Heinlein's Powered Armor Suit as seen in film, television, and video games.
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Heinlein’s influence was not limited to the SF community. Starship Troopers, with its battle heavy plot and hawkish perspective is a favorite among military groups. Heinlein was a member of the armed forces himself having served as a naval officer during the second world war. Charles Gannon notes on the connection between Heinlein’s military career and his writing:
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An Annapolis graduate with various technical accomplishments, Heinlein was involved with special Naval projects during World War II… Heinlein himself is said to have either worked, or was consulted, on projects as diverse as radar, the Kamikaze countermeasures study, and materials development for hypersonic aircraft. There is also considerable evidence that Heinlein worked on a number of advanced weapons systems, including anti-missile missiles and weapon automation: in short, even his military research work was the stuff of which future war fiction is made. [15]
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Fig 28.
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SF authors Robert A. Heinlein, L. Sprague de Camp, and Isaac Asimov photographed at the Philadelphia Navy Yard in 1944. Heinlein's interactions with the military community did not end after the war did. Heinlein went on to be part of the Citizens’ Advisory Council on National Space Policy and became a prominent supporter of Reagan’s so called “Star Wars” project. [16]
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Heinlein represents the beginning official relationships between the military and the SF community. The solidification of relationships between (some) SF author and the military was enforced over the course of the Cold War as the United States scrambled to stay one step ahead of the Soviet Union in all matters and so needed to anticipate and ramp up the technology and weapons being developed in the country. In 1957 the DARPA program was developed specifically to meet those goals.
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Fig 29.
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Fig 30. Head Mounted Display developed by DARPA
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DARPA continues to be a leader in scientific innovation and national defense. The projects they work on, (from advanced AI, cyber security, and medical developments) seem to come straight out of SF. In some instances, this is exactly the case. in 1997 DARPA developed Head Mounted Displays, a wearable tech that allows soldiers to quickly view and share information. DARPA took up the initiative in order to "assist war-fighters in daunting acts of multi-tasking... to enable soldiers to view information with unprecedented ease and efficiency" [18] DARPA's goal for the Head Mounted Display might as well be a description of the helmets used by Heinlein's mobile infantry.
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Description of Military Infantry Helmet Displays― from Starship Troopers (1959):
[The display] is a very convenient arrangement; you can flip through your several types of radar displays quicker than you can change channels to avoid a commercial—catch a range & bearing, locate your boss, check your flank men. [16]
[The display] is a very convenient arrangement; you can flip through your several types of radar displays quicker than you can change channels to avoid a commercial—catch a range & bearing, locate your boss, check your flank men. [16]
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A more recent DARPA project is also a part of Heinlein’s legacy. In 2010 Raytheon-Sarcos (through funding from DARPA) released the XOS 2. DARPA funded the project as a part of their “Exoskeletons for Human Performance Augmentation” initiative. In a paper considering the trends in exoskeleton prototypes, Heinlein and Starship Troopers are included as part of the timeline of the history of exoskeleton. In fact, the authors cite Starship Troopers as preceding all experiments with exoskeletons, implying that Heinlein has created an entire field of military exploration. [19]
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Fig 31. The XOS 2 allows "a solider can carry 400 pounds but feel the weight of only 23.5." [20]
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Fig 32.
Recent years have seen the debut of many exoskeleton prototypes, some of which are being developed for medical purposes and to aid veterans with limited mobility after being wounded in combat. The XOS 2 however, is a military exoskeleton. Much like Heinlein's powered armor suit, the XOS 2 is meant to enhance the strength and durability of soldiers in the field. The debut of the XOS 2 was timed to line up with DVD release of Iron Man 2, perhaps as an homage to the SF origins of the exoskeleton. [21]
Creating the Future (Today)
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Humanity's technological capabilities are finally beginning to catch up to the imaginations of past SF authors. Heat-Rays and Powered Armor are no longer theoretical or imaginary. Laser weapons are on the horizon. However, even as we begin to create the technology imagined by H.G. Wells and Robert Heinlein the feedback loop between SF and weapons development continues to expand.
Some of DARPA's latest developments for the military involve advanced robotic supports, unmanned vehicles, laser powered weapons, technologically integrated ground troops. and guided sniper bullets.
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Scientists, engineers, military personnel, and SF authors are not mutually exclusive. Robert Heinlein was a naval officer and an aeronautical engineer before he began writing an publishing works of SF. In 2007 a group of SF authors created the not-for-profit think-tank SIGMA to offer "futurism consulting to the United States government and appropriate NGOs." [22] These authors offer their expertise based on both their work within the SF genre, and their experience in careers in the fields of science, engineering, technology, the government and the military.
Fig 38.
SIGMA sits in the intersection of SF, government/military policy, and technological development. These authors play multiple roles and exert multiple influences in the development of the future.
Of course not all SF authors have side careers in research and development, but they can still exert influence on current and future trends in weapons technology. The growing popularity of SF as a genre expands the influence that SF authors can have on the future. Popular SF has and will continue to shape the collective perceptions of the future. The SF genre fills the vacuum of space that the near and distant future represent. Current (and future) weapons developers have grown up within that vacuum and have been shaped by all of the possible futures that SF puts forward. Even as we approach the technology imagined by Heinlein and Wells, new SF authors are busy extrapolating, speculating and transforming the technology and weapons of the far future.
Works Cited
[1] Samuelson, D. N. (1993). Modes of Extrapolation: The Formulas of Hard SF. Science Fiction Studies, 20(2), 191–232.
[2] Feltman, R. (2013, February 21). Why Don’t We Have Flying Cars Already? Retrieved December 8, 2018, from https://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/aviation/news/why-dont-we-have-flying-cars-15128771
[3] Slayton, R. (2011). From Death Rays to Light Sabers: Making Laser Weapons Surgically Precise. Technology and Culture, 52(1), 45–74.
[4] Blackmore, T. (2006). Cyclic Gun–Human Evolution: Soldiers, Guns, Machine Logic, and the Future. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 26(5), 363–369. https://doi.org/10.1177/0270467606293044
[5] Gilbert, G. M. (2010, May). Bushmaster ACR: A Transformative Firearm. American Rifleman, 158(5), 50–54.
[6] Schwartz, A. B. (n.d.). The Infamous “War of the Worlds” Radio Broadcast Was a Magnificent Fluke. Retrieved December 8, 2018, from https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/infamous-war-worlds-radio-broadcast-was-magnificent-fluke-180955180/
[7] Robinson, K. S., Beukes, L., Liu, K., Rajaniemi, H., Reynolds, A., & Bodard, A. de. (2017). Science fiction when the future is now. Nature,552, 329. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-017-08674-8
[8] Wells, H. G. (2012). The War of The Worlds. New York, NY: Atria Books.
[9] Fanning, W. J. (2010). The Historical Death Ray and Science Fiction in the 1920s and 1930s. Science Fiction Studies, 37(2), 253–274.
[10] Pappalardo, J. (2018, June 7). The U.S. Is Still Clueless About the Creepy “Sonic” Attacks in China and Cuba. Retrieved December 10, 2018, from https://www.popularmechanics.com/military/weapons/a21201860/sonic-attack-cuba-china-guangzhou/
[11] Dedman, S. (2010). “Murder in the Air”: The Quest for the Death Ray. Extrapolation (University of Texas at Brownsville), 51(1), 113–133.
[12] US military unveils heat-ray gun. (2007, January 25). BBC News. Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6297149.stm
[13] Davis, S. D. (2015). Controlled warfare: how directed-energy weapons will enable the US Military to fight effectively in an urban environment while minimizing collateral damage. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 26(1), 49–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2014.959764
[14] Kirby, D. (2010). The Future is Now: Diegetic Prototypes and the Role of Popular Films in Generating Real-world Technological Development. Social Studies of Science, 40(1), 41–70.
[15] Gannon, C. E. (2009). Imag(in)ing Tomorrow’s Wars and Weapons. Peace Review, 21(2), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/10402650902915177
[16] Heinlein, R. (2018). Starship Troopers. New York, NY: ACE.
[17] Liptak, A. (2017, December 10). 18 suits of power armor from science fiction you don’t want to meet on the battlefield. Retrieved December 11, 2018, from
https://www.theverge.com/2017/12/10/16173596/science-fiction-power-armor-exoskeletons-iron-man-expanse-starship-troopers-halo-list
[18] Head-Mounted Displays. (n.d.). Retrieved December 12, 2018, from https://www.darpa.mil/about-us/timeline/headmounted-displays
[19] Lee, H., Kim, W., Han, J., & Han, C. (2012). The technical trend of the exoskeleton robot system for human power assistance. International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing, 13(8), 1491–1497. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12541-012-0197-x
[20] Bender, J. (n.d.). The Military Is Closing In On Powerful Exoskeleton Technology. Retrieved December 12, 2018, from https://www.businessinsider.com/military-exoskeletons-2014-8
[21] Raytheon Corporation. (2010, September 27). Raytheon Unveils Lighter, Faster, Stronger Second Generation Exoskeleton Robotic Suit. Retrieved December 12, 2018, from http://raytheon.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=43&item=1652
[22] SIGMA Forum. (n.d.). Retrieved December 10, 2018, from http://www.sigmaforum.org/
[2] Feltman, R. (2013, February 21). Why Don’t We Have Flying Cars Already? Retrieved December 8, 2018, from https://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/aviation/news/why-dont-we-have-flying-cars-15128771
[3] Slayton, R. (2011). From Death Rays to Light Sabers: Making Laser Weapons Surgically Precise. Technology and Culture, 52(1), 45–74.
[4] Blackmore, T. (2006). Cyclic Gun–Human Evolution: Soldiers, Guns, Machine Logic, and the Future. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 26(5), 363–369. https://doi.org/10.1177/0270467606293044
[5] Gilbert, G. M. (2010, May). Bushmaster ACR: A Transformative Firearm. American Rifleman, 158(5), 50–54.
[6] Schwartz, A. B. (n.d.). The Infamous “War of the Worlds” Radio Broadcast Was a Magnificent Fluke. Retrieved December 8, 2018, from https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/infamous-war-worlds-radio-broadcast-was-magnificent-fluke-180955180/
[7] Robinson, K. S., Beukes, L., Liu, K., Rajaniemi, H., Reynolds, A., & Bodard, A. de. (2017). Science fiction when the future is now. Nature,552, 329. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-017-08674-8
[8] Wells, H. G. (2012). The War of The Worlds. New York, NY: Atria Books.
[9] Fanning, W. J. (2010). The Historical Death Ray and Science Fiction in the 1920s and 1930s. Science Fiction Studies, 37(2), 253–274.
[10] Pappalardo, J. (2018, June 7). The U.S. Is Still Clueless About the Creepy “Sonic” Attacks in China and Cuba. Retrieved December 10, 2018, from https://www.popularmechanics.com/military/weapons/a21201860/sonic-attack-cuba-china-guangzhou/
[11] Dedman, S. (2010). “Murder in the Air”: The Quest for the Death Ray. Extrapolation (University of Texas at Brownsville), 51(1), 113–133.
[12] US military unveils heat-ray gun. (2007, January 25). BBC News. Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6297149.stm
[13] Davis, S. D. (2015). Controlled warfare: how directed-energy weapons will enable the US Military to fight effectively in an urban environment while minimizing collateral damage. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 26(1), 49–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2014.959764
[14] Kirby, D. (2010). The Future is Now: Diegetic Prototypes and the Role of Popular Films in Generating Real-world Technological Development. Social Studies of Science, 40(1), 41–70.
[15] Gannon, C. E. (2009). Imag(in)ing Tomorrow’s Wars and Weapons. Peace Review, 21(2), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/10402650902915177
[16] Heinlein, R. (2018). Starship Troopers. New York, NY: ACE.
[17] Liptak, A. (2017, December 10). 18 suits of power armor from science fiction you don’t want to meet on the battlefield. Retrieved December 11, 2018, from
https://www.theverge.com/2017/12/10/16173596/science-fiction-power-armor-exoskeletons-iron-man-expanse-starship-troopers-halo-list
[18] Head-Mounted Displays. (n.d.). Retrieved December 12, 2018, from https://www.darpa.mil/about-us/timeline/headmounted-displays
[19] Lee, H., Kim, W., Han, J., & Han, C. (2012). The technical trend of the exoskeleton robot system for human power assistance. International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing, 13(8), 1491–1497. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12541-012-0197-x
[20] Bender, J. (n.d.). The Military Is Closing In On Powerful Exoskeleton Technology. Retrieved December 12, 2018, from https://www.businessinsider.com/military-exoskeletons-2014-8
[21] Raytheon Corporation. (2010, September 27). Raytheon Unveils Lighter, Faster, Stronger Second Generation Exoskeleton Robotic Suit. Retrieved December 12, 2018, from http://raytheon.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=43&item=1652
[22] SIGMA Forum. (n.d.). Retrieved December 10, 2018, from http://www.sigmaforum.org/
Images and Videos
Fig 1. THE JETSONS and all related characters and elements are trademarks of and © Hanna-Barbera.
Fig 2. Luke Skywalker and Darth Vader's lightsaber duel in Star Wars Episode IV: The Empire Strikes Back. Image © Lucasfilm
Fig 3. © 2010 Bushmaster Firearms International, LLC
Fig 4. Alien tripod illustration by Alvim Corréa, from the 1906 French edition of H.G. Wells' "War of the Worlds".
Fig 5. Starship Troopers 1997 © TriStar Pictures
Fig 8. Captain James T. Kirk (William Shatner) aims a Phaser Rifle in Star Trek: The Original Series © CBS Studios
Fig. 9 Phaser Rifle being fired in Star Trek: The Original Series episode "Where No Man Has Gone Before" © CBS Studio
Fig 10. First attack of the Martian tripod and Heat-Ray in the 2005 film War of the Worlds starring Tom Cruise. © Paramount Pictures
Fig 11. Movie poster for "The Destroying Ray" a Flash Gordon serial.
Fig 12 POSSIBILITIES OF RADIUM. (1904, Jan 28). New York Times (1857-1922) Retrieved from http://ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/docview/96424980?accountid=7287
Fig 13. INVENTION OF AN ITALIAN MAY PUT AN END TO WAR. (1914, Jun 21). New York Times (1857-1922)Retrieved from http://ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/docview/97501808?accountid=7287
Fig 14. Second british inventor reveals a death ray; patents device to send it in any direction. (1924, May 25). New York Times (1923-Current File) Retrieved from http://ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/docview/103371051?accountid=7287
Fig 15. TESLA, AT 78, BARES NEW 'DEATH-BEAM'. (1934, Jul 11). New York Times (1923-Current File) Retrieved from http://ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/docview/101183325?accountid=7287
Fig 16.Japanese had 'death ray' in stage of development. (1945, Oct 07). New York Times (1923-Current File)Retrieved from http://ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/docview/107245953?accountid=7287
Fig 17. The Death Star in Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope© Lucasfilm
Fig 18. Movie poster for Murder in the Air (1940) © First National Pictures
Fig 19. Active Denial System is mounted onto military vehicles for mobility. Photo from AP.
Fig 20. The ADS "Heat Ray" is being proposed as a non-lethal weapon for use in urban warfare situations to limit collateral damage. Illustration from US Military/ Raytheon
Fig 21. Cover art for Starship Troopers (1997 edition) Published by ACE
Fig 22. GIF Image from Iron Man (2008) © Marvel Studios © Paramount Pictures
Fig 23. Advertisement for The Expanse © Amazon Prime Video © SyFy Channel
Fig 24. Power Armor from Fallout 4. © Bethesda Game Studios
Fig 25. Batman Power Armor as seen in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. © DC Entertainment
Fig 26. Armored soldiers from Halo Wars. © Ensemble Studios
Fig 27. Caterpillar P-5000 Work Loader as seen in Aliens: © 20th Century Fox
Fig 28. Photo of Robert Heinlein, L. Sprague de Camp, and Isaac Asimov (1944)
Fig 29. DARPA Overview video.
Fig 30. Soldier wearing Head Mounted Display. Image: DARPA
Fig 31. XOS 2 Exoskeleton. Image: Raytheon
Fig 32. Timeline of Exoskeleton production. Image: International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing.
Fig 33. High Energy Liquid Laser Area Defense System (HELLADS) Image: DARPA
Fig 34. Extreme Accuracy Tasked Ordnance (EXACTO)Image: DARPA
Fig 35. Squad X Artist’s Illustration Image: DARPAFig
36. Legged Squad Support System (LS3) Image: DARPA
Fig 37. EXCALIBUR Laser Image: DARPA
Fig 38. SIGMA cartoon © Shane Wilson (2007)
Fig 2. Luke Skywalker and Darth Vader's lightsaber duel in Star Wars Episode IV: The Empire Strikes Back. Image © Lucasfilm
Fig 3. © 2010 Bushmaster Firearms International, LLC
Fig 4. Alien tripod illustration by Alvim Corréa, from the 1906 French edition of H.G. Wells' "War of the Worlds".
Fig 5. Starship Troopers 1997 © TriStar Pictures
Fig 8. Captain James T. Kirk (William Shatner) aims a Phaser Rifle in Star Trek: The Original Series © CBS Studios
Fig. 9 Phaser Rifle being fired in Star Trek: The Original Series episode "Where No Man Has Gone Before" © CBS Studio
Fig 10. First attack of the Martian tripod and Heat-Ray in the 2005 film War of the Worlds starring Tom Cruise. © Paramount Pictures
Fig 11. Movie poster for "The Destroying Ray" a Flash Gordon serial.
Fig 12 POSSIBILITIES OF RADIUM. (1904, Jan 28). New York Times (1857-1922) Retrieved from http://ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/docview/96424980?accountid=7287
Fig 13. INVENTION OF AN ITALIAN MAY PUT AN END TO WAR. (1914, Jun 21). New York Times (1857-1922)Retrieved from http://ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/docview/97501808?accountid=7287
Fig 14. Second british inventor reveals a death ray; patents device to send it in any direction. (1924, May 25). New York Times (1923-Current File) Retrieved from http://ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/docview/103371051?accountid=7287
Fig 15. TESLA, AT 78, BARES NEW 'DEATH-BEAM'. (1934, Jul 11). New York Times (1923-Current File) Retrieved from http://ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/docview/101183325?accountid=7287
Fig 16.Japanese had 'death ray' in stage of development. (1945, Oct 07). New York Times (1923-Current File)Retrieved from http://ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/docview/107245953?accountid=7287
Fig 17. The Death Star in Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope© Lucasfilm
Fig 18. Movie poster for Murder in the Air (1940) © First National Pictures
Fig 19. Active Denial System is mounted onto military vehicles for mobility. Photo from AP.
Fig 20. The ADS "Heat Ray" is being proposed as a non-lethal weapon for use in urban warfare situations to limit collateral damage. Illustration from US Military/ Raytheon
Fig 21. Cover art for Starship Troopers (1997 edition) Published by ACE
Fig 22. GIF Image from Iron Man (2008) © Marvel Studios © Paramount Pictures
Fig 23. Advertisement for The Expanse © Amazon Prime Video © SyFy Channel
Fig 24. Power Armor from Fallout 4. © Bethesda Game Studios
Fig 25. Batman Power Armor as seen in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. © DC Entertainment
Fig 26. Armored soldiers from Halo Wars. © Ensemble Studios
Fig 27. Caterpillar P-5000 Work Loader as seen in Aliens: © 20th Century Fox
Fig 28. Photo of Robert Heinlein, L. Sprague de Camp, and Isaac Asimov (1944)
Fig 29. DARPA Overview video.
Fig 30. Soldier wearing Head Mounted Display. Image: DARPA
Fig 31. XOS 2 Exoskeleton. Image: Raytheon
Fig 32. Timeline of Exoskeleton production. Image: International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing.
Fig 33. High Energy Liquid Laser Area Defense System (HELLADS) Image: DARPA
Fig 34. Extreme Accuracy Tasked Ordnance (EXACTO)Image: DARPA
Fig 35. Squad X Artist’s Illustration Image: DARPAFig
36. Legged Squad Support System (LS3) Image: DARPA
Fig 37. EXCALIBUR Laser Image: DARPA
Fig 38. SIGMA cartoon © Shane Wilson (2007)
